Policing - recent issues

Special Edition on Crime Science

Waddington, P. A. J., Neyroud, P. — 2008-07-18

Special Edition on Crime Science

Laycock, G. — 2008-07-18

How to Behave Like a Scientist?

Pease, K. — 2008-07-18

The wish to re-orient the study of crime from conventional criminology smacks of arrogance and must be justified by reference to advantages that might be gained from such a re-orientation. It is contended that an eclectic approach seeking contributions across science disciplines would stimulate cross-discipline research; undermine the separation of natural and social science reflected in the structure of both Home Office and Research Councils and the content of university courses on crime; and remove obstacles to topic-led developments and the emergence of hybrid journals (which are characteristic of faster-advancing areas of scholarship). Examples of actual and potential cross-discipline work are provided and the mushroom growth of criminology as a discipline in tertiary education is argued to be inimical to the re-orientation advocated in this article.

Mathematics, Physics, and Crime

Johnson, N. — 2008-07-18

This paper looks at the general issue of patterns in spatio-temporal crime data; in other words, the ‘when’ and ‘where’ of crime events. For the case of violent acts, common patterns have been found to underlie fatalities in three quite different arenas: homicides in Bogota, Colombia; violent deaths in insurgent conflicts; and deaths due to global terrorist acts. It is proposed that the emerging scientific discipline of complexity is well placed to interpret such patterns—and may eventually lead to predictive spatio-temporal modeling. At the same time, caution is urged in simply adopting physical or biological models that are based on diffusion dynamics. While such models work very well in physical and biological systems, any element of decision making and/or communication at-a-distance in the criminological setting is likely to render diffusive models inaccurate and even potentially misleading.

Evolutionary Psychology and Fear of Crime

Sidebottom, A., Tilley, N. — 2008-07-18

Presently, public levels of fear of crime are generally considered to be excessive and undesirable. Their reduction is a recurrent policy target. It is recurrent because of the long-standing difficulties experienced in lowering levels of fear to match falling crime rates. The purpose of this brief paper is to describe how and why evolutionary theory may contribute to our understanding of the fear of crime, and help explain why it has been found so difficult to reduce it. The mismatch between fear and real risk, shown for instance in young men's consistent underestimation of risk, is examined. Implications of this for a policy aiming at ‘realism’ in relation to fear and risk are also discussed. In this vein, evolutionary theory, we believe, has the potential to explain both disproportionately high and disproportionately low levels of fear of crime. Moreover, it indicates why some methods of attempting to achieve fear-reduction policy aims have few prospects of success.

Simulating Crime Prevention Strategies: A Look at the Possibilities

Groff, E., Birks, D. — 2008-07-18

While essential, the process of developing and testing crime prevention strategies is currently an expensive and time-consuming process. In addition, there are some potential crime prevention programs that are either too costly or unethical to test empirically. What if we could test these strategies in an artificial world first? In a world of increasingly uncertain resources, simulation offers a promising methodology for experimenting with potential strategies to identify the most promising ones before they are tested empirically. This paper introduces simulation and then explores the potential of and challenges to the use of simulation models to provide valuable information about the potential effectiveness of crime prevention strategies. One potential application of simulation is discussed in detail and several others are suggested.

A Forensic Geoscience Framework and Practice

Morgan, R. M., Allen, E., Lightowler, Z. L., Freudiger-Bonzon, J., Bull, P. A. — 2008-07-18

Appropriate and correct collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of geoforensic evidence are contingent upon understanding the specific context of the particular forensic investigation undertaken. To achieve this, the role of experimental studies in forensic geoscience must not be underestimated. In this article, we present two experimental studies that assess the spatial distribution of pollen in a living room and the nature of subsequent transfer of pollen onto clothing. The presence of cut flowers in a living room are shown to lead to a distribution of pollen grains onto all types of surface in that room that exhibits a distance–decay pattern with the greatest numbers of grains found in close proximity to the flowers. Once the transfer of pollen grains from a source location onto clothing has taken place, our second study demonstrates the nature of the persistence of that evidence for dry and damp clothing under active and inactive conditions. The level of activity after transfer is shown to have far more influence upon the persistence of this form of geoforensic evidence in comparison to the damp or dry conditions of the garment. We argue that these findings have implications for all stages of the forensic investigation–from sampling protocols to the interpretation of the presence/absence of geoforensic evidence. Whilst every contact does indeed leave a trace, it is imperative that there is an appreciation of the context of each forensic investigation, meaningful science take place and accurate and helpful crime reconstructions to be achieved.

Identifying Priority Neighbourhoods Using the Vulnerable Localities Index

Chainey, S. — 2008-07-18

The growth of the intelligence-led paradigm in policing and crime reduction partnerships has also called for the need to develop analytical techniques that can aid the development of neighbourhood-level intelligence. A technique that has generated increasing interest in England and Wales to help identify neighbourhoods that require prioritised attention is the Vulnerable Localities Index (VLI). This is a composite measure that is calculated using six variables. The VLI aids the systematic identification of priority neighbourhoods, using a methodology that can be applied in any part of England and Wales (regardless of differences in crime levels), and at any level of geographic scale. It has been pilot tested across eight sites and is gaining particular interest in aiding neighbourhood policing and partnership intelligence requirements. This paper describes the background to the VLI, the criteria that were considered to help identify suitable variables, and the methodology for combining the variables to form a single composite index. This is illustrated with data from Middlesbrough which is then used to demonstrate the VLI's use in practice, illustrating how the Safer Middlesbrough Partnership has used the VLI to support partnership intelligence.

Anticipating Mobile Phone 'Smart Wallet' Crime: Policing and Corporate Social Responsibility

Whitehead, S., Farrell, G. — 2008-07-18

Policing continues to struggle with the wave of mobile phone theft that emerged from the mid-1990s onwards. In this decade, the rate of increase may be waning, but the next wave may be approaching. Mobile phone smart wallets combine smart card technology with mobile phones, and the potential for identity theft and financial crime—and hence the attractiveness of theft—is likely to increase with smart wallets. This could spur new forms of theft, violence and other crimes. However, the market testing of technologies in Japan may be inappropriate for crime-proofing purposes, because of Japan's low crime rate. The criminogenic potential of smart card and mobile smart wallet technologies warrants further examination. If policing is to avoid a potential crime problem, discussions with manufacturers should begin before the problem takes hold.

Evaluating Crime Prevention: The Potential of Using Individual-Level Matched Control Designs

Bowers, K. J., Lab, S. P., Johnson, S. D. — 2008-07-18

The relative merits of quasi-experimental area-level place-based evaluations and randomized control trials are the subject of contemporary debate in the criminological literature. Pertinent issues in the application of these approaches to crime prevention include the experimental validity of the former and the real-world practicality of the latter. In this article, we propose a ‘middle-ground’ and discuss the use of matched control designs and survival analysis conducted at the individual level. This is illustrated using information relating to a target-hardening scheme implemented in the UK. Some advantages of this approach are that it enables the tracking of samples of action and control households over time, does not demand random allocation to groups from the outset and provides insights into the longevity of the impact of measures. Disadvantages lie in the extensive data preparation required and the dependency of the process on detailed records from agencies.

Technology and Policing: Implications for Fairness and Legitimacy

Neyroud, P., Disley, E. — 2008-07-18

In this article, Peter Neyroud, Chief Executive of the NPIA, and Emma Disley, DPhil student at the Centre for Criminology, University of Oxford, argue that factual questions about the effectiveness of new technologies (such as DNA evidence, mobile identification technologies and computer databases) in detecting and preventing crime should not, and cannot, be separated from ethical and social questions surrounding the impact which these technologies might have upon civil liberties. This is due to the close inter-relationship between the effectiveness of the police and public perceptions of police legitimacy—which may potentially be damaged if new technologies are not deployed carefully. The authors argue that strong, transparent management and oversight of these technologies are essential, and suggest some factors to which a regime of governance should attend.

Post-conflict Police Reform: Is Northern Ireland a Model?

Bayley, D. H. — 2008-07-18

The police in Northern Ireland have undergone extensive—many would say fundamental—reform as recommended by the Patten Commission (Independent Commission on Policing in Northern Ireland (1999) following the Good Friday Agreement of 1998. This essay examines the relevance of the reform experience in Northern Ireland to other countries emerging from conflict where policing is critical to peace and stability. First, it specifies four challenges that Northern Ireland faced that are common to other post-conflict societies. It then reviews the elements in Northern Ireland's reform and the evidence for their achievement. Finally, it suggests four factors that made reform possible in Northern Ireland, factors that may not occur in similar situations elsewhere. It argues in conclusion that Northern Ireland shows that meaningful police reform can occur despite years of bitter conflict, but that certain conditions may be necessary for it.

The Fraud Review and the Policing of Fraud: Laying the Foundations for a Centralized Fraud Police or Counter Fraud Executive?

Button, M., Johnston, L., Frimpong, K. — 2008-07-18

The recent United Kingdom (UK) Fraud Review Final Report made 62 recommendations on a wide range of issues across the breadth of the criminal justice system, all of which were accepted by the government. This paper aims to generate further debate on the recommendations vis-à-vis the future of fraud investigation. The paper begins by examining some of the main recommendations of the UK Fraud Review before exploring the growing pressures on fraud investigation in the UK. The paper argues that the Fraud Review, combined with these growing pressures, is laying the foundations for the further centralization of fraud investigation. The authors argue that there are two potential models for the centralization of the policing of fraud: a National Fraud Police or National Counter Fraud Executive, and the authors also argue that the latter offers the best model for the longer term, for effectively tackling fraud in the UK.

Rogers, C. and Lewis, R. (2007): INTRODUCTION TO POLICE WORK

Rawlings, D. — 2008-07-18

Special Edition on Organized Crime

Neyroud, P., Waddington, P. A. J. — 2008-06-04

Special Edition on Organized Crime

Allum, F. — 2008-06-04

Organized Crime in Europe: Conceptions and Realities

von Lampe, K. — 2008-06-04

This essay and review attempts to provide an overview of the situation of organized crime in Europe, drawing on official and academic sources. The available information is put in perspective using a classificatory scheme which distinguishes three basic dimensions: activities, associational structures, and systemic conditions. Compared to other assessments of organized crime, a more differentiated view is advocated. Cautious inferences are drawn on the social relevance of particular types of phenomena. It is argued that the greatest threat posed by organized crime does not emanate from the potential of criminal groups in and by themselves but from the willingness of power elites to enter into alliances with criminal elements.

Understanding Organized Crime: A Local Perspective

Gilmour, S. — 2008-06-04

Detective Chief Inspector Stan Gilmour of Thames Valley Police has been involved in developing his force's response to the threat from organized crime, which includes the mapping of organized crime groups within his force area. In this paper, he examines the elements that have come together to press for a step-change in the way the police define, recognize and deal with organized crime. In doing so he explains the problems he has encountered as a police officer trying to grapple with the concept of organized crime. He will also explore some of the issues that have emerged, either as help or hindrance, in the difficult task of mapping covert networks. The thoughts expressed in this article are the author's own and not those of Thames Valley Police.

Organized Crime, Money Laundering,and Terrorism

Ridley, N. — 2008-06-04

This article deals with organized crime, money laundering, and terrorism. It traces the differing organized crime dynamics following the events of 1989, and discusses differing interpretations and concepts of organized crime. It then deals with international anti-money laundering measures and perceptions. Linked to this are the similarities—and differences—between money laundering and terrorist financing. There is a growing nexus between organized crime and terrorism which should not be overestimated when meeting the challenge of terrorist financing. The analysis of money laundering that finances the ‘new’ terrorism of the post-9/11 era has been further hampered by remaining locked into static money laundering concepts. This results in intelligence oversights, particularly in the area of exploitation of offshore jurisdictions.

Investigating Chinese Crime Entrepreneurs

Huisman, S. — 2008-06-04

This article gives a brief overview of how Chinese criminals, residing in the Netherlands, organize their illegal businesses. It will focus on the smuggling of precursor chemicals PMK and BMK, which are used for the production of MDMA and amphetamine respectively. The Chinese crime community that is being described here is predominantly Cantonese speaking. Chinese criminals from Hong Kong and the Guangdong province who live in Europe have been traditionally active in the smuggling of various illegal goods (they are not involved in human smuggling). Since the early 1990s, these criminals have shifted their attention to the trading of precursor chemicals that are smuggled from China. In describing the organization of their activities, the article will also address the backgrounds of the Chinese criminals and several cultural aspects that play a significant role in the way they organize their crimes. Finally, several recommendations will be put forward that have to be taken into account when investigating Chinese criminal groups.

Organized Crime in Italy: The Neapolitan Camorra Today

Roberti, F. — 2008-06-04

Franco Roberti is an Anti-Mafia public prosecutor. Since 2005, he has been coordinating the Anti-Mafia pool in Naples (Direzione Distrettuale Antimafia) which is currently made up of 24 public prosecutors investigating all forms of organized crime in the city and region. In this article, he presents an overview of the current state of the Neapolitan Camorra based on the numerous on-going investigations.

Decline, Change or Denial: Human Trafficking and EU Responses in the Balkan Triangle

Arsovska, J. — 2008-06-04

From the late 1990s onwards, the western Balkan countries have been singled out as one of the main hotbeds of organized crime. As a result, EU policies towards the region have placed the fight against organized crime among their top priorities. Trafficking in persons—especially women and children—for the purpose of forced prostitution has been recognised as a major area of concern. However, in the past few years human trafficking from/via the Balkan Triangle (Albania, Kosovo, and Macedonia) seems to have decreased. This paper explores possible factors leading to this crime shift. It also evaluates to what extent EU top-down strategies have contributed to these developments. The paper is based on interviews with law enforcement officials, investigation of police files, and analysis of official crime statistics as well as internal police reports.

Paradigms, Pathologies, and Practicalities- Policing Organized Crime in England and Wales

Harfield, C. — 2008-06-04

Policing organized crime remains problematic, notwithstanding the creation of the Serious Organised Crime Agency. Adopting Brodeur's construction of ‘high’ and ‘low’ policing, and following the government's reconfiguration of organized crime as a national/transnational security threat rather than a purely criminal threat, this paper summarises the practical and pathological challenges presented by organized crime to traditional policing paradigms. Thus presented as having outgrown local policing competence, and so justifying new investigative powers and agencies, organized crime is still manifested locally: ad hoc collaboration is filling part of the capacity and capability response void. The so-called level 2 gap is as much conceptual as structural.

Combating Organized Crime in Europe: Practicalities of Police Cooperation

Block, L. — 2008-06-04

Ludo Block is a former Dutch police officer who from 1999 till 2004 served as the police liaison officer for the Dutch National Police Agency in Moscow. In this article he responds to claims that the extent of police cooperation in Europe is insufficient, stating that the extent to which such claims are justified is unclear, as most appear to be based on anecdotal evidence—systematic evaluations of police cooperation are scarce. With the aim of providing a better understanding of international police cooperation in combating organized crime, this article investigates practices of European police cooperation. Particular attention is given to a case study of a drug-trafficking investigation, the daily practices of police liaison officers, and joint investigation teams. These demonstrate that, notwithstanding room for improvement, extensive and successful police cooperation does exist in Europe. Various factors influencing police cooperation are identified and illustrate that it is a complex and dynamic field. It can therefore be concluded that claims about the state of play of European police cooperation based on anecdotal evidence are unable to present an accurate picture.

The Flexibility of RICO and its Use on Street Gangs Engaging in Organized Crime in the United States

Wheatley, J. — 2008-06-04

Developments in State Witness Protection Programmes: The Italian Experience in an International Comparative Perspective

Allum, F., Fyfe, N. — 2008-06-04

Across the world, there is growing concern about the intimidation of witnesses in organized crime investigations and the impact of this in terms of undermining both public confidence in the criminal justice system and its effectiveness. Recognition of these problems has prompted many governments to invest in state witness protection programmes. This article examines the Italian State Witness Protection Programme in a comparative international context in order to understand what lessons can be learnt from it. In particular, it asks what can be learnt from (1) the law and the structure of the protection programme, (2) the challenges of turning criminals into effective state witnesses and (3) the importance of public opinion. It concludes that state witness protection programmes are a fundamental part of the fight against organized crime, but what is needed to make them efficient include resources, skilled personnel and political will.

Europol and the European Criminal Intelligence Model: A Non-state Response to Organized Crime

Brady, H. — 2008-06-04

Hugo Brady is a Research Fellow on EU institutions and Justice and Home Affairs at the Centre for European Reform. He previously worked in the political division of the Irish Department of Foreign Affairs and as a research associate on the constitutional treaty at the Institute for European Affairs in Dublin. In this article he examines the role of the EU in combating organized crime and argues that the EU should not seek to centralise law enforcement cooperation in Europol and Eurojust, but rather that it should be the focal point for a new pan-European community of police officers. He makes a convincing case for a ‘European criminal intelligence model’—a non-state policing plan for coordinating investigations against organized crime within the EU using the model of intelligence-led policing.

The Treatment of Victims in England and Wales

Rock, P. — 2008-06-04

This article examines the discredited attributes of the public persona of the victim of serious crime. The author considers the construction of the victim and the victim's role within the trial process, looking at arguments which claim that the role of the victim is consider to inject emotionality into the conflicts leading up to and culminating in the criminal trial.

Performance Management and the Decline of Leadership within Public Services in the United Kingdom

Loveday, B. — 2008-06-04

This article considers the impact of performance measurement and performance management in the public services with particular reference to the police service in the United Kingdom. It suggests that, contrary to the argument made within much current managerial literature extolling the values of leadership to effective management, the current emphasis placed on performance measurement serves to reinforce the central importance of management over leadership. This is found to be the case particularly within public service delivery, where the imposition of targets has helped create a tyranny of conformity within public services including the police service. It considers the influence of a target culture and the rise of deliverology in public services, arguing for the development of a more sophisticated ‘systems approach’ to service delivery. This would help sustain a citizen focus based on effective local feedback mechanisms, which might encourage a renaissance of leadership qualities while also encouraging public services to become far less risk averse.

Roads Policing: Current Context and Imminent Dangers

Corbett, C. — 2008-06-04

This paper will argue that roads policing is the public face of the police for many citizens, and thus, enjoys an elevated profile. Yet, the delivery of roads policing services requires urgent care and attention. As was the situation a century ago, potential and actual conflict with the driving public could be close at hand, as more reliance is placed on enforcement technology resulting in more vehicle movements being logged and more drivers becoming criminalised. Indeed, it will be contended that unless great care is taken, such could be the public disaffection with traffic law enforcement and monitoring policies that the legitimacy of the police itself could be challenged.

After a brief update of recent developments concerning roads policing nationally and internationally, the second section will underline the ways in which roads policing provides a crucial service. Details follow of dangers lying in wait for the service if the pressing enforcement issues around roads policing are allowed to drift. Finally, some suggestions are outlined to help inform discussion of these matters that could simultaneously facilitate achievement of other key objectives of roads policing.

Galeotti, M. (Ed.) (2007): GLOBAL CRIME TODAY--THE CHANGING FACE OF ORGANIZED CRIME

Kingston, N. — 2008-06-04

McClean, David (2007): TRANSNATIONAL ORGANIZED CRIME. A COMMENTARY ON THE UN CONVENTION AND ITS PROTOCOLS

Marelli, F. — 2008-06-04

Policing of Public Order

Waddington, P. A. J. — 2007-01-01

Editorial

Neyroud, P. — 2007-01-01

Seattle and its Aftershock: Some Implications for Theory and Practice

Waddington, D. — 2007-01-01

This article focuses on policing and related theoretical developments in the wake of the infamous ‘Battle of Seattle’, when police and hundreds of protesters engaged in fierce confrontation resulting in the temporary suspension of the World Trade summit meeting of 1999. In particular, the article dwells on the implications of evolving police strategies and tactics for handling transnational protest, and ways of theorising these changes and their possible contribution to collective violence, for the Flashpoints Model of Public Disorder. It emphasises how post-Seattle developments reinforce the need for a new ‘level of analysis’ within the model's framework, highlighting the significance of key institutional factors. This revised model is briefly used to identify police crowd-management techniques conducive to the maintenance of public order.

From Batons to Negotiated Management: The Transformation of Policing Industrial Disputes in Australia

Baker, D. — 2007-01-01

Although historically there was no formal policy of repressing strikers, police in Australia usually responded swiftly and aggressively to employer demands to quell industrial unrest and thereby facilitated workplace access for staff and strikebreakers. Despite numerous violent confrontations between police and picketers, there was virtually no accountability of police actions. In recent decades, a much more sophisticated and professional relationship has evolved between police and unions. This article contends that contemporary procedures and negotiations, which have limited the amount of violence at picket-lines, have benefited both the union movement and the police. As illustrated by the case study of the large-scale 1998 national maritime dispute, contemporary policing tactics usually comprise a low-key, non-confrontational and peace-keeping approach. However, modern police authorities, who maintain the latent capacity to use coercion including riot technology, remain resolute and determined to control major industrial strife, but preferably by negotiation and persuasion.

Knowledge-Based Public Order Policing: Principles and Practice

Reicher, S., Stott, C., Drury, J., Adang, O., Cronin, P., Livingstone, A. — 2007-01-01

Much public order policing is still based on the assumption that crowds are inherently irrational and dangerous. We argue that this approach is both misinformed and counter-productive because it can lead to policing interventions that increase the influence of those advocating violence in the crowd. We challenge traditional assumptions about crowd psychology and demonstrate how widespread conflict derives from the interactions between police and crowds. From this, we develop general guidelines as to how policing can reduce crowd violence and lead crowd members themselves to self-police violent groupings in their midst. We then use examples from anti-globalisation protests and the Euro 2004 football championships to show how these guidelines can be applied in practice and how effective they can be. We conclude by arguing that such knowledge-based crowd policing can turn crowd events into opportunities to overcome seemingly intractable conflicts between the police and groups within our society.

Urban 'Riots' or Urban Violence in France?

Body-Gendrot, S. — 2007-01-01

This article discusses the forms of urban violence which inflamed over 300 sensitive neighbourhoods in France in November 2005, referred to by the media, politicians and researchers as ‘riots’.¹ This choice of word is not without consequences. The term riots, associated with cities, evokes the racial riots in American cities during the 1960s and those in Los Angeles in 1992, images of which have been seen all over the world. This article argues that the reference to riots is inappropriate in the French case, it is structured according to the questions that President Lyndon Johnson asked Judge Otto Kerner when he appointed him as the Head of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorder in 1967: What happened? How did it happen? Why did it happen? What can be done? It concludes with a discussion as to what is specifically French in these outbursts.

Policing Social Transition: Public Order Policing Change in Lithuania

King, M., Koci, A., Bukauskas, A. — 2007-01-01

Drawing from a series of interviews with senior police officers, Ministry officials and local government officers, this article examines policing change in post-Soviet Lithuania. Its particular focus is the policing of public order, and to this end it refers to the policing of a number of events both during the early transition phase and the present. Initially, the militia system of policing is outlined, before considering some of the obstacles facing the move towards democratic policing. The article then compares the early police reform proposals with the realities of the present. It concludes by arguing that whilst the police have made significant moves towards de-politicisation, they are still heavily centralised. Further, the de-militarisation process has recently taken the form of para-militarisation. Finally, it is suggested that the policing of protest generally operates on a formal ‘law and order’ ethos, rather than a more flexible and discretionary basis.

Intelligence and its Application to Contemporary Policing

Phillips, D., Caless, B., Bryant, R. — 2007-01-01

Routes into 'Islamic' Terrorism: Dead Ends and Spaghetti Junctions

Vertigans, S. — 2007-01-01

Explanations for the development of groups associated with terrorism generally and ‘Islamic’ terrorism in particular, tend to concentrate upon materialism and forms of brainwashing. Despite considerable evidence to the contrary, the uneducated poor and unemployed graduates are most commonly profiled as Muslim terrorists. To address the over-reliance on economic factors and weak personalities, a broader approach is adopted that examines political opportunities, socialising processes and historical and contemporary experiences. It is argued that if ‘Islamic’ terrorism is to be fully understood and ultimately defeated, then it has to be acknowledged as a multi-faceted phenomenon that is caused by varying combinations of economic, political, social, cultural and psychological factors.

Redefining the Gaps: Connecting Neighbourhood Safety to National Security

Sampson, F., McNeill, J. — 2007-01-01

Continuing the Discussion on Use of Force, Issue 3 * Policing & the Use of Force: Less-lethal Weapons

Rappert, B. — 2007-01-01

In recent years, considerable attention has been given to the role of ‘less-lethal’ options in alleviating the varied problems associated with the use of police force. Highly supportive claims have been made by manufacturers, police agencies, and others relating to the ability of such devices in reducing injuries to both officers and members of the public. Issue 3 of Policing focussed on the ‘Use of Force’ and included various positive statements about the place and purpose of less-lethal weapons. Although not wishing to completely dismiss such claims, this article seeks to scrutinize these claims. This article serves to recast common depictions of these weapons within the spectrum of force options, considering the past history of their deployment, and moving beyond treating them in a narrow, technical manner.

Continuing the Discussion on Accountability, Issue 3 * Embracing Accountability: The Way Forward - Part Two

Markham, G., Punch, M. — 2007-01-01

Who is to Guard the Guards Themselves? A Contribution to the Current Debate on the Accountability of Policing

Godfrey, J. — 2007-01-01

Militarization and Policing--Its Relevance to 21st Century Police

Kraska, P. B. — 2007-01-01

This work examines the blurring distinctions between the police and military institutions and between war and law enforcement. In this article, the author asserts that understanding this blur, and the associated organizing concepts militarization and militarism, are essential for accurately analyzing the changing nature of security, and the activity of policing, in the late-modern era of the 21st century.

Continuing the Discussion on Neighbourhood Policing, Issue 2 * Local Accountability and the Police Service: The Development of Neighbourhood Policing

Thornton, S., Mason, L. — 2007-01-01

Dixon, D. (2007). * INTERROGATING IMAGES

Gilmour, S. — 2007-01-01

Henry, A. and Smith, D. J. (Eds) (2007). * TRANSFORMATIONS OF POLICING

Mason, L. — 2007-01-01

Keith, R. C. and Lin, Z. (2006). * NEW CRIME IN CHINA: PUBLIC ORDER AND HUMAN RIGHTS

Mason, L. — 2007-01-01

Waddington, David. P. (2007). * POLICING PUBLIC DISORDER: THEORY AND PRACTICE

Mason, L. — 2007-01-01